Genomic Insights into Monkeypox Virus: Paving the Way for Targeted Vaccine Development and Therapeutic Targeting
Abstract
Monkeypox virus (MPXV), a zoonotic orthopoxvirus, has emerged as a growing global health concern due to its expanding geographic spread and sustained human-to-human transmission. Advances in whole-genome sequencing have enabled detailed characterization of the MPXV genome, revealing a conserved central region essential for replication and variable terminal regions associated with host adaptation, immune evasion, and virulence. Comparative genomic analyses distinguish the more virulent Congo Basin (Clade I) lineage from the less severe West African (Clade II) lineage, reflecting differences in transmission dynamics and clinical outcomes. Integrating genomic data with structural and immunological insights has facilitated the identification of conserved viral targets for vaccine and therapeutic development, including monoclonal antibodies directed against key antigenic determinants. In parallel, next-generation vaccine platforms such as mRNA, DNA, and recombinant viral vectors are advancing MPXV prevention strategies and complementing existing orthopoxvirus vaccines. These innovations offer improved safety, scalability, and adaptability to emerging variants. This review highlights the interplay between viral genomics, evolution, and host immune responses, underscoring their importance in guiding rational vaccine design and targeted therapeutics. Continuous genomic surveillance and multidisciplinary research efforts remain critical for improving outbreak preparedness and mitigating the public health impact of MPXV.
Keywords:
Antiviral Therapies, Monkeypox Virus (MPXV), Vaccine Development, Zoonotic Diseases
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Alakunle, E., Moens, U., Nchinda, G., & Okeke, M. I. (2020). Monkeypox virus in Nigeria: infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution. Viruses, 12(11), 1257. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12111257
Alcami, A. (2003). Viral mimicry of cytokines, chemokines and their receptors. Nature Reviews Immunology, 3(1), 36-50. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri980
Andrieu, J., Valade, M., Wurtz, N., Lebideau, M., Bretelle, F., La Scola, B., ... & Mezouar, S. (2025). Monkeypox Virus Subverts the Inflammatory Response of Macrophages at the Maternal‐Fetal Interface. Journal of Medical Virology, 97(5), e70412. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.70412
Araf, Y., Nipa, J. F., Naher, S., Maliha, S. T., Rahman, H., Arafat, K. I., ... & Zheng, C. (2024). Insights into the transmission, host range, genomics, vaccination, and current epidemiology of the monkeypox virus. Veterinary Medicine International, 2024(1), 8839830. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/8839830
Bianconi, I., Aschbacher, R., & Pagani, E. (2023). Current uses and future perspectives of genomic technologies in clinical microbiology. Antibiotics, 12(11), 1580. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12111580
Bruneau, R. C., Tazi, L., & Rothenburg, S. (2023). Cowpox viruses: A zoo full of viral diversity and lurking threats. Biomolecules, 13(2), 325. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13020325
Byrareddy, S. N., Sharma, K., Sachdev, S., Reddy, A. S., Acharya, A., Klaustermeier, K. M., ... & Singh, K. (2023). Potential therapeutic targets for Mpox: the evidence to date. Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets, 27(6), 419-431. https://doi.org/10.1080/14728222.2023.2230361
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2026). Diagnostic testing for monkeypox. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved February 6, 2026, from https://www.cdc.gov/monkeypox/hcp/diagnosis-testing/index.html
Chao, Z., Selivanovitch, E., Kallitsis, K., Lu, Z., Pachaury, A., Owens, R., & Daniel, S. (2024). Recreating the biological steps of viral infection on a cell-free bioelectronic platform to profile viral variants of concern. Nature Communications, 15(1), 5606. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49415-6
Chen, Y., Zhao, R., Hu, X., & Wang, X. (2025). The current status and future prospects of CRISPR-based detection of monkeypox virus: A review. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1336, 343295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2024.343295
Doyle, L. M., & Wang, M. Z. (2019). Overview of extracellular vesicles, their origin, composition, purpose, and methods for exosome isolation and analysis. Cells, 8(7), 727. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8070727
Farasani, A. (2022). Monkeypox virus: Future role in Human population. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 15(11), 1270-1275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2022.10.002
Gao, F., He, C., Liu, M., Yuan, P., Tian, S., Zheng, M., ... & Li, X. (2023). Cross-reactive immune responses to monkeypox virus induced by MVA vaccination in mice. Virology Journal, 20(1), 126. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-023-02085-0
Garcia-Atutxa, I., Mondragon-Teran, P., Huerta-Saquero, A., & Villanueva-Flores, F. (2024). Advancements in monkeypox vaccines development: A critical review of emerging technologies. Frontiers in Immunology, 15, 1456060. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2024.1456060
Gieryńska, M., Szulc-Dąbrowska, L., Struzik, J., Gregorczyk-Zboroch, K. P., Mielcarska, M. B., Toka, F. N., ... & Biernacka, Z. (2023). Orthopoxvirus zoonoses—do we still remember and are ready to fight? Pathogens, 12(3), 363. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030363
Gigante, C. M. (2024). Notes from the field: mpox cluster caused by tecovirimat-resistant monkeypox virus—five states, October 2023–February 2024. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 73. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/73/wr/mm7340a3.html
Gupta, N., & Verma, V. K. (2019). Next-Generation Sequencing and Its Application: Empowering in Public Health Beyond Reality. In: Arora, P. (eds) Microbial Technology for the Welfare of Society. Microorganisms for Sustainability, vol 17. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8844-6_15
Hasan, S., & Saeed, S. (2022). Monkeypox disease: an emerging public health concern in the shadow of COVID-19 pandemic: an update. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 7(10), 283. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7100283
Harini, K., Kiran, V., Thirumalai, A., Girigoswami, K., & Girigoswami, A. (2026). Nanomedicine and One Health Approaches for Monkeypox: Emerging Preclinical Strategies for Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Journal of Virological Methods, 115478. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jviromet.2026.115478
He, Y., Tang, Y., Wang, C., Zhou, Z., Li, W., & Tian, M. (2023). The global health threat of monkeypox virus: understanding its biology, transmission, and potential therapeutic interventions. Infection and Drug Resistance, 16, 7759-7766. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S438725
Hill, V., Githinji, G., Vogels, C. B., Bento, A. I., Chaguza, C., Carrington, C. V., & Grubaugh, N. D. (2023). Toward a global virus genomic surveillance network. Cell Host & Microbe, 31(6), 861-873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2023.05.010
Hirani, R., Noruzi, K., Iqbal, A., Hussaini, A. S., Khan, R. A., Harutyunyan, A., ... & Tiwari, R. K. (2023). A review of the past, present, and future of the monkeypox virus: challenges, opportunities, and lessons from COVID-19 for global health security. Microorganisms, 11(11), 2713. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11112713
Howard, F. H., Kwan, A., Winder, N., Mughal, A., Collado-Rojas, C., & Muthana, M. (2022). Understanding immune responses to viruses—do underlying Th1/Th2 cell biases predict outcome? Viruses, 14(7), 1493. https://doi.org/10.3390/v14071493
Iyyanar, S., Ravi, S. N., & Moovendhan, M. (2025). Immunoinformatics-driven multi-epitope peptide vaccine design targeting hepatitis C virus E1/E2 envelope protein. Journal of Molecular Structure, 143872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2025.143872
Jahankir, M. J. B., Sounderrajan, V., Rao, S. S., Thangam, T., Kamariah, N., Kurumbati, A., ... & Parthasarathy, K. (2024). Accelerated mutation by host protein APOBEC in Monkeypox virus. Gene Reports, 34, 101878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genrep.2024.101878
Kugelman, J. R., Johnston, S. C., Mulembakani, P. M., Kisalu, N., Lee, M. S., Koroleva, G., ... & Rimoin, A. W. (2014). Genomic variability of monkeypox virus among humans, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 20(2), 232-239. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2002.130118
Lansiaux, E., Jain, N., Laivacuma, S., & Reinis, A. (2022). The virology of human monkeypox virus (hMPXV): A brief overview. Virus Research, 322, 198932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2022.198932
Li, H., Zhang, H., Ding, K., Wang, X. H., Sun, G. Y., Liu, Z. X., & Luo, Y. (2022). The evolving epidemiology of monkeypox virus. Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews, 68, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cytogfr.2022.10.002
Liu, W., Zhang, E., Li, W., Lv, R., Lin, Y., Xu, Y., ... & Li, Y. (2024). Advances and challenges of mpox detection technology. Biosafety and Health, 6(05), 260-269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bsheal.2024.09.005
Loganathan, T., Fletcher, J., Abraham, P., Kannangai, R., Chakraborty, C., El Allali, A., ... & C, G. P. D. (2024). Expression analysis and mapping of Viral—Host protein interactions of poxviridae suggests a lead candidate molecule targeting Mpox. BMC Infectious Diseases, 24, 483. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-024-09332-x
Lu, J., Xing, H., Wang, C., Tang, M., Wu, C., Ye, F., ... & Shen, L. (2023). Mpox (formerly monkeypox): pathogenesis, prevention and treatment. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy, 8(1), 458. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-023-01675-2
Lum, F. M., Torres-Ruesta, A., Tay, M. Z., Lin, R. T., Lye, D. C., Rénia, L., & Ng, L. F. (2022). Monkeypox: disease epidemiology, host immunity and clinical interventions. Nature Reviews Immunology, 22(10), 597-613. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-022-00775-4
Ma, A., O’Shea, R., Wedd, L., Wong, C., Jamieson, R. V., & Rankin, N. (2024). What is the power of a genomic multidisciplinary team approach? A systematic review of implementation and sustainability. European Journal of Human Genetics, 32(4), 381-391. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-023-01425-5
Malaka, C. N., Patrono, L. V., Tombolomako, T. B., Farra, E., Sibiro, O., Garba-Ouangolé, S., ... & Boum, Y. (2025). Genomic epidemiology of clade Ia monkeypox viruses circulating in the Central African Republic in 2022–24: a retrospective cross-sectional study. The Lancet Microbe, 6(10). https://doi.org /10.1016/j.lanmic.2025.101173
Martínez-Fernández, D. E., Fernández-Quezada, D., Casillas-Muñoz, F. A. G., Carrillo-Ballesteros, F. J., Ortega-Prieto, A. M., Jimenez-Guardeño, J. M., & Regla-Nava, J. A. (2023). Human Monkeypox: a comprehensive overview of epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention strategies. Pathogens, 12(7), 947. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12070947
Monzón, S., Varona, S., Negredo, A., Vidal-Freire, S., Patiño-Galindo, J. A., Ferressini-Gerpe, N., ... & Palacios, G. (2024). Monkeypox virus genomic accordion strategies. Nature Communications, 15(1), 3059. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46949-7
Moss, B. (2012). Poxvirus cell entry: How many proteins does it take?. Viruses, 4(5), 688-707. https://doi.org/10.3390/v4050688
Moss, B. (2013). Poxvirus DNA replication. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 5(9), a010199. https://doi.org/ 10.1101/cshperspect.a010199
Najafi, S., Tan, S. C., Aghamiri, S., Raee, P., Ebrahimi, Z., Jahromi, Z. K., ... & Mirzaei, H. (2022). Therapeutic potentials of CRISPR-Cas genome editing technology in human viral infections. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy, 148, 112743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2022.112743
Ntombela, N., Matsiela, M., Zuma, S., Hiralal, S., Naicker, L., Mokoena, N., & Khoza, T. (2023). Production of recombinant lumpy skin disease virus A27L and L1R proteins for application in diagnostics and vaccine development. Vaccine: X, 15, 100384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvacx.2023.100384
Nyame, J., Punniyakotti, S., Khera, K., Pal, R. S., Varadarajan, N., & Sharma, P. (2023). Challenges in the treatment and prevention of monkeypox infection; A comprehensive review. Acta Tropica, 245, 106960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.106960
Olawade, D. B., Teke, J., Fapohunda, O., Weerasinghe, K., Usman, S. O., Ige, A. O., & David-Olawade, A. C. (2024). Leveraging artificial intelligence in vaccine development: A narrative review. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 224, 106998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mimet.2024.106998
Puagsopa, J., Jumpalee, P., Dechanun, S., Choengchalad, S., Lohasupthawee, P., Sutjaritvorakul, T., & Meksiriporn, B. (2025). Development of a broad-spectrum pan-Mpox vaccine via immunoinformatic approaches. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(15), 7210. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26157210
Quan, Q., Wu, N., Luo, Y. H., Tang, Y. J., Liu, Y. Z., Huang, X. C., ... & Jin, C. H. (2025). Global transmission, prevention, control, and treatment of mpox virus in 2025: A comprehensive review from infection mechanisms to vaccine development. Vaccines, 13(10), 1071. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13101071
Rabaan, A. A., Alasiri, N. A., Aljeldah, M., Alshukairiis, A. N., AlMusa, Z., Alfouzan, W. A., ... & Imran, M. (2023). An updated review on monkeypox viral disease: emphasis on genomic diversity. Biomedicines, 11(7), 1832. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11071832
Roper, R. L. (2006). Characterization of the vaccinia virus A35R protein and its role in virulence. Journal of Virology, 80(1), 306-313. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.80.1.306-313.2006
Russo, A. T., Grosenbach, D. W., Chinsangaram, J., Honeychurch, K. M., Long, P. G., Lovejoy, C., ... & Hruby, D. E. (2021). An overview of tecovirimat for smallpox treatment and expanded anti-orthopoxvirus applications. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy, 19(3), 331-344. https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2020.1819791
Sagdat, K., Batyrkhan, A., & Kanayeva, D. (2024). Exploring monkeypox virus proteins and rapid detection techniques. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 14, 1414224. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2024.1414224
Saravanan, M., Belete, M. A., & Madhavan, Y. (2022). Monkeypox virus outbreaks in the African continent: A new zoonotic alert–Correspondence. International Journal of Surgery (London, England), 108, 106998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2022.106998
Satam, H., Joshi, K., Mangrolia, U., Waghoo, S., Zaidi, G., Rawool, S., ... & Malonia, S. K. (2023). Next-generation sequencing technology: current trends and advancements. Biology, 12(7), 997. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12070997
Satapathy, P., Yoosuf, B. T., Gaidhane, A. M., Vadia, N., Menon, S. V., Chennakesavulu, K., ... & Goh, K. W. (2025). Mpox: transmission dynamics, treatment, and innovations. Therapeutic Advances in Infectious Disease, 12, 20499361251357521. https://doi.org/10.1177/20499361251357521
Shehryar, A., Nagaraj, R. H., Kanwal, F., Reddy, S. M., Grezenko, H., Raut, Y., ... & Sahin, D. (2023). Unraveling monkeypox: An emerging threat in global health. Cureus, 15(8). https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.43961
Shi, C., Zheng, X., Lei, L., Xiao, J., Yu, G., Li, Y., ... & Wang, Q. (2025). Phylogenetic and molecular evolutionary insights into monkeypox virus circulation in Shenzhen, China, 2023–2024. Viruses, 17(9), 1214. https://doi.org/10.3390/v17091214
Shu, Y., & McCauley, J. (2017). GISAID: Global initiative on sharing all influenza data–from vision to reality. Eurosurveillance, 22(13), 30494. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2017.22.13.30494
Singh, P., Sridhar, S. B., Shareef, J., Talath, S., Mohapatra, P., Khatib, M. N., ... & Rodriguez-Morales, A. J. (2024). The resurgence of monkeypox: Epidemiology, clinical features, and public health implications in the post-smallpox eradication era. New Microbes and New Infections, 62, 101487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nmni.2024.101487
Sobhy, H. (2017). A comparative review of viral entry and attachment during large and giant dsDNA virus infections. Archives of Virology, 162(12), 3567-3585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00705-017-3497-8
Souza, A. R., Brinkmann, A., Esparza, J., Nitsche, A., & Damaso, C. R. (2023). Gene duplication, gene loss, and recombination events with variola virus shaped the complex evolutionary path of historical American horsepox-based smallpox vaccines. Mbio, 14(5), e01887-23. https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.01887-23
Tilloy, V., Diaz-Gonzalez, D., Laplace, L., Bisserier, E., Chou, S., Rawlinson, W. D., ... & Alain, S. (2024). Comprehensive herpesviruses antiviral drug resistance mutation database (CHARMD). Antiviral Research, 231, 106016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2024.106016
Vandenbogaert, M., Kwasiborski, A., Gonofio, E., Descorps‐Declère, S., Selekon, B., Nkili Meyong, A. A., ... & Berthet, N. (2022). Nanopore sequencing of a monkeypox virus strain isolated from a pustular lesion in the Central African Republic. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 10768. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15073-1
Veeraraghavan, V. P., Balaji, J. N., Prakash, S., Prashar, L., Mony, U., & Surapaneni, K. M. (2023). Laboratory networking systems to tackle the spread of monkeypox virus–a need of the hour. International Journal of Surgery (London, England), 109(2), 161-162. https://doi.org/10.1097/JS9.0000000000000148
Wang, W., Li, J. X., Long, S. Q., Liu, Z. N., Li, X. P., Peng, Z. H & Liao, Y. H. (2025). Emerging strategies for monkeypox: antigen and antibody applications in diagnostics, vaccines, and treatments. Military Medical Research, 12(1), 69. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-025-00660-w
Wang, Y., Yang, K., & Zhou, H. (2023). Immunogenic proteins and potential delivery platforms for mpox virus vaccine development: A rapid review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 245, 125515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.125515
Wruck, W., & Adjaye, J. (2021). Detailed phylogenetic analysis tracks transmission of distinct SARS-COV-2 variants from China and Europe to West Africa. Scientific Reports, 11, 21108. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-00267-w
Xiang, Y., & White, A. (2022). Monkeypox virus emerges from the shadow of its more infamous cousin: family biology matters. Emerging Microbes & Infections, 11(1), 1768-1777. https://doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2022.2095309
Yadav, R., Chaudhary, A. A., Srivastava, U., Gupta, S., Rustagi, S., Rudayni, H. A., ... & Kumar, S. (2025). Mpox 2022 to 2025 update: A comprehensive review on its complications, transmission, diagnosis, and treatment. Viruses, 17(6), 753. https://doi.org/10.3390/v17060753
Yi, X. M., Lei, Y. L., Li, M., Zhong, L., & Li, S. (2024). The monkeypox virus-host interplays. Cell Insight, 3(5), 100185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellin.2024.100185
Zabidi, N. Z., Liew, H. L., Farouk, I. A., Puniyamurti, A., Yip, A. J. W., Wijesinghe, V. N., ... & Lal, S. K. (2023). Evolution of SARS-CoV-2 variants: implications on immune escape, vaccination, therapeutic and diagnostic strategies. Viruses, 15(4), 944. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15040944
Zeng, J., Li, Y., Jiang, L., Luo, L., Wang, Y., Wang, H., ... & Yan, J. (2023). Mpox multi-antigen mRNA vaccine candidates by a simplified manufacturing strategy afford efficient protection against lethal orthopoxvirus challenge. Emerging Microbes & Infections, 12(1), 2204151. https://doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2023.2204151
Zhang, R. R., Wang, Z. J., Zhu, Y. L., Tang, W., Zhou, C., Zhao, S. Q., ... & Qin, C. F. (2023). Rational development of multicomponent mRNA vaccine candidates against mpox. Emerging Microbes & Infections, 12(1), 2192815. https://doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2023.2192815
Zhang, S., Li, Y. D., Cai, Y. R., Kang, X. P., Feng, Y., Li, Y. C., ... & Jiang, T. (2024). Compositional features analysis by machine learning in genome represents linear adaptation of monkeypox virus. Frontiers in Genetics, 15, 1361952. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2024.1361952
Alcami, A. (2003). Viral mimicry of cytokines, chemokines and their receptors. Nature Reviews Immunology, 3(1), 36-50. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri980
Andrieu, J., Valade, M., Wurtz, N., Lebideau, M., Bretelle, F., La Scola, B., ... & Mezouar, S. (2025). Monkeypox Virus Subverts the Inflammatory Response of Macrophages at the Maternal‐Fetal Interface. Journal of Medical Virology, 97(5), e70412. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.70412
Araf, Y., Nipa, J. F., Naher, S., Maliha, S. T., Rahman, H., Arafat, K. I., ... & Zheng, C. (2024). Insights into the transmission, host range, genomics, vaccination, and current epidemiology of the monkeypox virus. Veterinary Medicine International, 2024(1), 8839830. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/8839830
Bianconi, I., Aschbacher, R., & Pagani, E. (2023). Current uses and future perspectives of genomic technologies in clinical microbiology. Antibiotics, 12(11), 1580. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12111580
Bruneau, R. C., Tazi, L., & Rothenburg, S. (2023). Cowpox viruses: A zoo full of viral diversity and lurking threats. Biomolecules, 13(2), 325. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13020325
Byrareddy, S. N., Sharma, K., Sachdev, S., Reddy, A. S., Acharya, A., Klaustermeier, K. M., ... & Singh, K. (2023). Potential therapeutic targets for Mpox: the evidence to date. Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets, 27(6), 419-431. https://doi.org/10.1080/14728222.2023.2230361
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2026). Diagnostic testing for monkeypox. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved February 6, 2026, from https://www.cdc.gov/monkeypox/hcp/diagnosis-testing/index.html
Chao, Z., Selivanovitch, E., Kallitsis, K., Lu, Z., Pachaury, A., Owens, R., & Daniel, S. (2024). Recreating the biological steps of viral infection on a cell-free bioelectronic platform to profile viral variants of concern. Nature Communications, 15(1), 5606. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49415-6
Chen, Y., Zhao, R., Hu, X., & Wang, X. (2025). The current status and future prospects of CRISPR-based detection of monkeypox virus: A review. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1336, 343295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2024.343295
Doyle, L. M., & Wang, M. Z. (2019). Overview of extracellular vesicles, their origin, composition, purpose, and methods for exosome isolation and analysis. Cells, 8(7), 727. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8070727
Farasani, A. (2022). Monkeypox virus: Future role in Human population. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 15(11), 1270-1275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2022.10.002
Gao, F., He, C., Liu, M., Yuan, P., Tian, S., Zheng, M., ... & Li, X. (2023). Cross-reactive immune responses to monkeypox virus induced by MVA vaccination in mice. Virology Journal, 20(1), 126. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-023-02085-0
Garcia-Atutxa, I., Mondragon-Teran, P., Huerta-Saquero, A., & Villanueva-Flores, F. (2024). Advancements in monkeypox vaccines development: A critical review of emerging technologies. Frontiers in Immunology, 15, 1456060. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2024.1456060
Gieryńska, M., Szulc-Dąbrowska, L., Struzik, J., Gregorczyk-Zboroch, K. P., Mielcarska, M. B., Toka, F. N., ... & Biernacka, Z. (2023). Orthopoxvirus zoonoses—do we still remember and are ready to fight? Pathogens, 12(3), 363. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030363
Gigante, C. M. (2024). Notes from the field: mpox cluster caused by tecovirimat-resistant monkeypox virus—five states, October 2023–February 2024. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 73. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/73/wr/mm7340a3.html
Gupta, N., & Verma, V. K. (2019). Next-Generation Sequencing and Its Application: Empowering in Public Health Beyond Reality. In: Arora, P. (eds) Microbial Technology for the Welfare of Society. Microorganisms for Sustainability, vol 17. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8844-6_15
Hasan, S., & Saeed, S. (2022). Monkeypox disease: an emerging public health concern in the shadow of COVID-19 pandemic: an update. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 7(10), 283. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7100283
Harini, K., Kiran, V., Thirumalai, A., Girigoswami, K., & Girigoswami, A. (2026). Nanomedicine and One Health Approaches for Monkeypox: Emerging Preclinical Strategies for Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Journal of Virological Methods, 115478. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jviromet.2026.115478
He, Y., Tang, Y., Wang, C., Zhou, Z., Li, W., & Tian, M. (2023). The global health threat of monkeypox virus: understanding its biology, transmission, and potential therapeutic interventions. Infection and Drug Resistance, 16, 7759-7766. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S438725
Hill, V., Githinji, G., Vogels, C. B., Bento, A. I., Chaguza, C., Carrington, C. V., & Grubaugh, N. D. (2023). Toward a global virus genomic surveillance network. Cell Host & Microbe, 31(6), 861-873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2023.05.010
Hirani, R., Noruzi, K., Iqbal, A., Hussaini, A. S., Khan, R. A., Harutyunyan, A., ... & Tiwari, R. K. (2023). A review of the past, present, and future of the monkeypox virus: challenges, opportunities, and lessons from COVID-19 for global health security. Microorganisms, 11(11), 2713. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11112713
Howard, F. H., Kwan, A., Winder, N., Mughal, A., Collado-Rojas, C., & Muthana, M. (2022). Understanding immune responses to viruses—do underlying Th1/Th2 cell biases predict outcome? Viruses, 14(7), 1493. https://doi.org/10.3390/v14071493
Iyyanar, S., Ravi, S. N., & Moovendhan, M. (2025). Immunoinformatics-driven multi-epitope peptide vaccine design targeting hepatitis C virus E1/E2 envelope protein. Journal of Molecular Structure, 143872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2025.143872
Jahankir, M. J. B., Sounderrajan, V., Rao, S. S., Thangam, T., Kamariah, N., Kurumbati, A., ... & Parthasarathy, K. (2024). Accelerated mutation by host protein APOBEC in Monkeypox virus. Gene Reports, 34, 101878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genrep.2024.101878
Kugelman, J. R., Johnston, S. C., Mulembakani, P. M., Kisalu, N., Lee, M. S., Koroleva, G., ... & Rimoin, A. W. (2014). Genomic variability of monkeypox virus among humans, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 20(2), 232-239. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2002.130118
Lansiaux, E., Jain, N., Laivacuma, S., & Reinis, A. (2022). The virology of human monkeypox virus (hMPXV): A brief overview. Virus Research, 322, 198932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2022.198932
Li, H., Zhang, H., Ding, K., Wang, X. H., Sun, G. Y., Liu, Z. X., & Luo, Y. (2022). The evolving epidemiology of monkeypox virus. Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews, 68, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cytogfr.2022.10.002
Liu, W., Zhang, E., Li, W., Lv, R., Lin, Y., Xu, Y., ... & Li, Y. (2024). Advances and challenges of mpox detection technology. Biosafety and Health, 6(05), 260-269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bsheal.2024.09.005
Loganathan, T., Fletcher, J., Abraham, P., Kannangai, R., Chakraborty, C., El Allali, A., ... & C, G. P. D. (2024). Expression analysis and mapping of Viral—Host protein interactions of poxviridae suggests a lead candidate molecule targeting Mpox. BMC Infectious Diseases, 24, 483. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-024-09332-x
Lu, J., Xing, H., Wang, C., Tang, M., Wu, C., Ye, F., ... & Shen, L. (2023). Mpox (formerly monkeypox): pathogenesis, prevention and treatment. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy, 8(1), 458. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-023-01675-2
Lum, F. M., Torres-Ruesta, A., Tay, M. Z., Lin, R. T., Lye, D. C., Rénia, L., & Ng, L. F. (2022). Monkeypox: disease epidemiology, host immunity and clinical interventions. Nature Reviews Immunology, 22(10), 597-613. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-022-00775-4
Ma, A., O’Shea, R., Wedd, L., Wong, C., Jamieson, R. V., & Rankin, N. (2024). What is the power of a genomic multidisciplinary team approach? A systematic review of implementation and sustainability. European Journal of Human Genetics, 32(4), 381-391. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-023-01425-5
Malaka, C. N., Patrono, L. V., Tombolomako, T. B., Farra, E., Sibiro, O., Garba-Ouangolé, S., ... & Boum, Y. (2025). Genomic epidemiology of clade Ia monkeypox viruses circulating in the Central African Republic in 2022–24: a retrospective cross-sectional study. The Lancet Microbe, 6(10). https://doi.org /10.1016/j.lanmic.2025.101173
Martínez-Fernández, D. E., Fernández-Quezada, D., Casillas-Muñoz, F. A. G., Carrillo-Ballesteros, F. J., Ortega-Prieto, A. M., Jimenez-Guardeño, J. M., & Regla-Nava, J. A. (2023). Human Monkeypox: a comprehensive overview of epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention strategies. Pathogens, 12(7), 947. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12070947
Monzón, S., Varona, S., Negredo, A., Vidal-Freire, S., Patiño-Galindo, J. A., Ferressini-Gerpe, N., ... & Palacios, G. (2024). Monkeypox virus genomic accordion strategies. Nature Communications, 15(1), 3059. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46949-7
Moss, B. (2012). Poxvirus cell entry: How many proteins does it take?. Viruses, 4(5), 688-707. https://doi.org/10.3390/v4050688
Moss, B. (2013). Poxvirus DNA replication. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 5(9), a010199. https://doi.org/ 10.1101/cshperspect.a010199
Najafi, S., Tan, S. C., Aghamiri, S., Raee, P., Ebrahimi, Z., Jahromi, Z. K., ... & Mirzaei, H. (2022). Therapeutic potentials of CRISPR-Cas genome editing technology in human viral infections. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy, 148, 112743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2022.112743
Ntombela, N., Matsiela, M., Zuma, S., Hiralal, S., Naicker, L., Mokoena, N., & Khoza, T. (2023). Production of recombinant lumpy skin disease virus A27L and L1R proteins for application in diagnostics and vaccine development. Vaccine: X, 15, 100384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvacx.2023.100384
Nyame, J., Punniyakotti, S., Khera, K., Pal, R. S., Varadarajan, N., & Sharma, P. (2023). Challenges in the treatment and prevention of monkeypox infection; A comprehensive review. Acta Tropica, 245, 106960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.106960
Olawade, D. B., Teke, J., Fapohunda, O., Weerasinghe, K., Usman, S. O., Ige, A. O., & David-Olawade, A. C. (2024). Leveraging artificial intelligence in vaccine development: A narrative review. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 224, 106998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mimet.2024.106998
Puagsopa, J., Jumpalee, P., Dechanun, S., Choengchalad, S., Lohasupthawee, P., Sutjaritvorakul, T., & Meksiriporn, B. (2025). Development of a broad-spectrum pan-Mpox vaccine via immunoinformatic approaches. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(15), 7210. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26157210
Quan, Q., Wu, N., Luo, Y. H., Tang, Y. J., Liu, Y. Z., Huang, X. C., ... & Jin, C. H. (2025). Global transmission, prevention, control, and treatment of mpox virus in 2025: A comprehensive review from infection mechanisms to vaccine development. Vaccines, 13(10), 1071. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13101071
Rabaan, A. A., Alasiri, N. A., Aljeldah, M., Alshukairiis, A. N., AlMusa, Z., Alfouzan, W. A., ... & Imran, M. (2023). An updated review on monkeypox viral disease: emphasis on genomic diversity. Biomedicines, 11(7), 1832. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11071832
Roper, R. L. (2006). Characterization of the vaccinia virus A35R protein and its role in virulence. Journal of Virology, 80(1), 306-313. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.80.1.306-313.2006
Russo, A. T., Grosenbach, D. W., Chinsangaram, J., Honeychurch, K. M., Long, P. G., Lovejoy, C., ... & Hruby, D. E. (2021). An overview of tecovirimat for smallpox treatment and expanded anti-orthopoxvirus applications. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy, 19(3), 331-344. https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2020.1819791
Sagdat, K., Batyrkhan, A., & Kanayeva, D. (2024). Exploring monkeypox virus proteins and rapid detection techniques. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 14, 1414224. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2024.1414224
Saravanan, M., Belete, M. A., & Madhavan, Y. (2022). Monkeypox virus outbreaks in the African continent: A new zoonotic alert–Correspondence. International Journal of Surgery (London, England), 108, 106998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2022.106998
Satam, H., Joshi, K., Mangrolia, U., Waghoo, S., Zaidi, G., Rawool, S., ... & Malonia, S. K. (2023). Next-generation sequencing technology: current trends and advancements. Biology, 12(7), 997. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12070997
Satapathy, P., Yoosuf, B. T., Gaidhane, A. M., Vadia, N., Menon, S. V., Chennakesavulu, K., ... & Goh, K. W. (2025). Mpox: transmission dynamics, treatment, and innovations. Therapeutic Advances in Infectious Disease, 12, 20499361251357521. https://doi.org/10.1177/20499361251357521
Shehryar, A., Nagaraj, R. H., Kanwal, F., Reddy, S. M., Grezenko, H., Raut, Y., ... & Sahin, D. (2023). Unraveling monkeypox: An emerging threat in global health. Cureus, 15(8). https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.43961
Shi, C., Zheng, X., Lei, L., Xiao, J., Yu, G., Li, Y., ... & Wang, Q. (2025). Phylogenetic and molecular evolutionary insights into monkeypox virus circulation in Shenzhen, China, 2023–2024. Viruses, 17(9), 1214. https://doi.org/10.3390/v17091214
Shu, Y., & McCauley, J. (2017). GISAID: Global initiative on sharing all influenza data–from vision to reality. Eurosurveillance, 22(13), 30494. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2017.22.13.30494
Singh, P., Sridhar, S. B., Shareef, J., Talath, S., Mohapatra, P., Khatib, M. N., ... & Rodriguez-Morales, A. J. (2024). The resurgence of monkeypox: Epidemiology, clinical features, and public health implications in the post-smallpox eradication era. New Microbes and New Infections, 62, 101487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nmni.2024.101487
Sobhy, H. (2017). A comparative review of viral entry and attachment during large and giant dsDNA virus infections. Archives of Virology, 162(12), 3567-3585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00705-017-3497-8
Souza, A. R., Brinkmann, A., Esparza, J., Nitsche, A., & Damaso, C. R. (2023). Gene duplication, gene loss, and recombination events with variola virus shaped the complex evolutionary path of historical American horsepox-based smallpox vaccines. Mbio, 14(5), e01887-23. https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.01887-23
Tilloy, V., Diaz-Gonzalez, D., Laplace, L., Bisserier, E., Chou, S., Rawlinson, W. D., ... & Alain, S. (2024). Comprehensive herpesviruses antiviral drug resistance mutation database (CHARMD). Antiviral Research, 231, 106016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2024.106016
Vandenbogaert, M., Kwasiborski, A., Gonofio, E., Descorps‐Declère, S., Selekon, B., Nkili Meyong, A. A., ... & Berthet, N. (2022). Nanopore sequencing of a monkeypox virus strain isolated from a pustular lesion in the Central African Republic. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 10768. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15073-1
Veeraraghavan, V. P., Balaji, J. N., Prakash, S., Prashar, L., Mony, U., & Surapaneni, K. M. (2023). Laboratory networking systems to tackle the spread of monkeypox virus–a need of the hour. International Journal of Surgery (London, England), 109(2), 161-162. https://doi.org/10.1097/JS9.0000000000000148
Wang, W., Li, J. X., Long, S. Q., Liu, Z. N., Li, X. P., Peng, Z. H & Liao, Y. H. (2025). Emerging strategies for monkeypox: antigen and antibody applications in diagnostics, vaccines, and treatments. Military Medical Research, 12(1), 69. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-025-00660-w
Wang, Y., Yang, K., & Zhou, H. (2023). Immunogenic proteins and potential delivery platforms for mpox virus vaccine development: A rapid review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 245, 125515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.125515
Wruck, W., & Adjaye, J. (2021). Detailed phylogenetic analysis tracks transmission of distinct SARS-COV-2 variants from China and Europe to West Africa. Scientific Reports, 11, 21108. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-00267-w
Xiang, Y., & White, A. (2022). Monkeypox virus emerges from the shadow of its more infamous cousin: family biology matters. Emerging Microbes & Infections, 11(1), 1768-1777. https://doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2022.2095309
Yadav, R., Chaudhary, A. A., Srivastava, U., Gupta, S., Rustagi, S., Rudayni, H. A., ... & Kumar, S. (2025). Mpox 2022 to 2025 update: A comprehensive review on its complications, transmission, diagnosis, and treatment. Viruses, 17(6), 753. https://doi.org/10.3390/v17060753
Yi, X. M., Lei, Y. L., Li, M., Zhong, L., & Li, S. (2024). The monkeypox virus-host interplays. Cell Insight, 3(5), 100185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellin.2024.100185
Zabidi, N. Z., Liew, H. L., Farouk, I. A., Puniyamurti, A., Yip, A. J. W., Wijesinghe, V. N., ... & Lal, S. K. (2023). Evolution of SARS-CoV-2 variants: implications on immune escape, vaccination, therapeutic and diagnostic strategies. Viruses, 15(4), 944. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15040944
Zeng, J., Li, Y., Jiang, L., Luo, L., Wang, Y., Wang, H., ... & Yan, J. (2023). Mpox multi-antigen mRNA vaccine candidates by a simplified manufacturing strategy afford efficient protection against lethal orthopoxvirus challenge. Emerging Microbes & Infections, 12(1), 2204151. https://doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2023.2204151
Zhang, R. R., Wang, Z. J., Zhu, Y. L., Tang, W., Zhou, C., Zhao, S. Q., ... & Qin, C. F. (2023). Rational development of multicomponent mRNA vaccine candidates against mpox. Emerging Microbes & Infections, 12(1), 2192815. https://doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2023.2192815
Zhang, S., Li, Y. D., Cai, Y. R., Kang, X. P., Feng, Y., Li, Y. C., ... & Jiang, T. (2024). Compositional features analysis by machine learning in genome represents linear adaptation of monkeypox virus. Frontiers in Genetics, 15, 1361952. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2024.1361952
Statistics
12 Views | 10 Downloads
How to Cite
Viswanathan, A., Bhavadharani, S., Balu, B. M., Sabapathy, S. and Sugumar, V. (2026) “Genomic Insights into Monkeypox Virus: Paving the Way for Targeted Vaccine Development and Therapeutic Targeting”, International Journal of Advancement in Life Sciences Research, 9(4), pp. 42-55. doi: https://doi.org/10.31632/ijalsr.2026.v09i04.003.
Section
Review Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
. 