The Art of Dye Expulsion in an Indian Freshwater Sponge
Abstract
Sponges, regarded as ‘living fossils,’ provide important models for studying primitive mechanisms of environmental tolerance and immune defense. In freshwater sponges, adaptational plasticity reflects their capacity to modulate physiological, cellular, and immunological responses to environmental challenges, including the recognition and rapid elimination of foreign materials, thereby contributing to survival in biologically vulnerable environments that are often contaminated by pollutants. Their remarkable adaptational plasticity and immunological resilience are associated with an efficient innate immune system, mediated by specialized immunocytes. Microscopical observations of freshwater sponge cells employing phase-contrast, bright-field, confocal and scanning electron microscopy revealed the existence of heterogeneous populations of polyphenotypic cells, which are presumed to be involved in physiological defense, self–nonself recognition, and tolerance to environmental stress. In the present article, the filter-feeding mechanism and rapid expulsion of foreign materials by the Indian freshwater sponge Eunapius carteri are discussed, with particular emphasis on its innate immune reactivity in situ. To demonstrate the movement and expulsion of foreign material, small volumes of Alta and blue water-soluble dyes were administered directly into the sponge body using a syringe. Following administration, the sponge rapidly expelled the foreign dyes through the osculum proximal to the injection site, indicating a localized and prompt canal mediated expulsion reflex, in which flagellated choanocytes generate water currents that facilitate filter feeding, gaseous exchange, and excretion. The present paper would help the researchers to identify cellular and immunophysiological mechanisms governing filter-feeding and the precise mechanisms of dye uptake, intracellular processing, and subsequent expulsion in freshwater sponges.
Keywords:
Biological Pumping, Dye Expulsion, Eunapius Carteri, Filter Feeding
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References
Bell, J. J., McGrath, E., Biggerstaff, A., Bates, T., Bennett, H., Marlow, J., & Shaffer, M. (2015). Sediment impacts on marine sponges. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 94(1-2), 5-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.03.030
Cummings, V. J., Beaumont, J., Mobilia, V., Bell, J. J., Tracey, D., Clark, M. R., & Barr, N. (2020). Responses of a common New Zealand coastal sponge to elevated suspended sediments: Indications of resilience. Marine Environmental Research, 155, 104886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.104886
Duckworth, A. R., & Pomponi, S. A. (2005). Relative importance of bacteria, microalgae and yeast for growth of the sponge Halichondriamelanadocia (De Laubenfels, 1936): a laboratory study. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 323(2), 151-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2005.03.007
Elliott, G. R., & Leys, S. P. (2007). Coordinated contractions effectively expel water from the aquiferous system of a freshwater sponge. Journal of Experimental Biology, 210(21), 3736-3748. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.003392
Fraissinet, S., Arduini, D., Vidal, O., Pennetta, A., De Benedetto, G. E., Malitesta, C., ... & Rossi, S. (2023). Particle uptake by filter-feeding macrofoulers from the Mar Grande of Taranto (Mediterranean Sea, Italy): potential as microplastic pollution bioremediators. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 188, 114613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114613
Hansen, I. V., Weeks, J. M., & Depledge, M. H. (1995). Accumulation of copper, zinc, cadmium and chromium by the marine sponge Halichondriapanicea Pallas and the implications for biomonitoring. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 31(1-3), 133-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-326X(94)00228-2
Hoffmann, F., Røy, H., Bayer, K., Hentschel, U., Pfannkuchen, M., Brümmer, F., & De Beer, D. (2008). Oxygen dynamics and transport in the Mediterranean sponge Aplysinaaerophoba. Marine biology, 153(6), 1257-1264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-008-0905-3
Hombing, A. B., Zamani, N. P., Ismet, M. S., Cordova, M. R., Subhan, B., &Suripatty, G. (2025). Interaction Mechanisms Between Marine Sponges (Porifera) and Microplastics: A Bioecological Overview. In BIO Web of Conferences (Vol. 184, p. 03005). EDP Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202518403005
Kornder, N. A., Esser, Y., Stoupin, D., Leys, S. P., Mueller, B., Vermeij, M. J., ... & de Goeij, J. M. (2022). Sponges sneeze mucus to shed particulate waste from their seawater inlet pores. Current Biology, 32(17), 3855-3861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.07.017
Ledda, F. D., Ramoino, P., Ravera, S., Perino, E., Bianchini, P., Diaspro, A., ... &Manconi, R. (2013). Tubulin posttranslational modifications induced by cadmium in the sponge Clathrinaclathrus. Aquatic Toxicology, 140, 98-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2013.05.013
Leys, S. P., Yahel, G., Reidenbach, M. A., Tunnicliffe, V., Shavit, U., & Reiswig, H. M. (2011). The sponge pump: The role of current induced flow in the design of the sponge body plan. PloS One, 6(12), e27787.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0027787
Manconi, R., Ruengsawang, N., Vannachak, V., Hanjavanit, C., Sangpradub, N., &Pronzato, R. (2013). Biodiversity in Southeast Asia: an overview of freshwater sponges (Porifera: Demospongiae: Spongillina). Journal of Limnology, 72(s2), 313-326. https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2013.s2.e15
Morganti, T. M., Ribes, M., Yahel, G., & Coma, R. (2019). Size is the major determinant of pumping rates in marine sponges. Frontiers in Physiology, 10, 1474. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.01474
Mukherjee, S. (2017). Studies on the toxicity of washing soda in freshwater sponge Eunapius carteri Bowerbank 1863.Shodhganga.http://hdl.handle.net/10603/211583
Mukherjee, S., Bhunia, A. S., Bhunia, N. S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2016a). Immunomodulatory effects of temperature and pH of water in an Indian freshwater sponge. Journal of Thermal Biology, 59, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2016.04.005
Mukherjee, S., Gautam, A., Pal, K., Karmakar, P., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2021). Copper oxide nanoparticle and copper sulfate induced impairment of innate immune parameters in a common Indian sponge. Journal of Hazardous Materials Letters, 2, 100036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazl.2021.100036
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2015a). Phagocytic efficiency and cytotoxic responses of Indian freshwater sponge (Eunapius carteri) cells isolated by density gradient centrifugation and flow cytometry: A morphofunctional analysis. Zoology, 118(1), 8-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zool.2014.07.002
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2015b). Immunotoxicity of washing soda in a freshwater sponge of India. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 113, 112-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.11.035
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2016b). A report of hailstorm damage to two species of freshwater sponge (Demospongiae: Haplosclerida: Spongillidae) populations of West Bengal, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 8(4): 8719–8727. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.1739.8.4.8719-8727
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2016c). Shift in aggregation, ROS generation, antioxidative defense, lysozyme and acetylcholinesterase activities in the cells of an Indian freshwater sponge exposed to washing soda (sodium carbonate). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology, 187, 19-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpc.2016.05.001
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2018). Washing soda induced alteration of the differential cell count, nonself surface adhesion efficacy and nuclear morphology of the polyphenotypic cells of a freshwater sponge of India. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 11(2), 155-168. https://doi.org/10.2478/intox-2018-0012
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., Dutta, M. K., Acharya, A., Mukhopadhyay, S. K., & Ray, S. (2015c). Morphological alteration, lysosomal membrane fragility and apoptosis of the cells of Indian freshwater sponge exposed to washing soda (sodium carbonate). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 122, 331-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.08.011
Müller, W. E., Batel, R., Lacorn, M., Steinhart, H., Simat, T., Lauenroth, S., ... & Schröder, H. C. (1998). Accumulation of cadmium and zinc in the marine sponge Suberitesdomuncula and its potential consequences on single-strand breaks and on expression of heat-shock protein: A natural field study. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 167, 127-135. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps167127
Negri, A., Burns, K., Boyle, S., Brinkman, D., & Webster, N. (2006). Contamination in sediments, bivalves and sponges of McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Environmental Pollution, 143(3), 456-467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2005.12.005
Ogawa, T., Koyama, S., Omori, T., Kikuchi, K., de Maleprade, H., Goldstein, R. E., & Ishikawa, T. (2025). The architecture of sponge choanocyte chambers is well adapted to mechanical pumping functions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(12), e2421296122. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2421296122
Patterson, M. R., Chernykh, V. I., Fialkov, V. A., & Savarese, M. (1997). Trophic effects of sponge feeding within Lake Baikal's littoral zone. 1. Insitu pumping rates. Limnology and Oceanography, 42(1), 171-178. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1997.42.1.0171
Pfannkuchen, M., Fritz, G. B., Schlesinger, S., Bayer, K., &Brümmer, F. (2009). In situ pumping activity of the sponge Aplysinaaerophoba, Nardo 1886. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 369(1), 65-71.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2008.10.027
Ribeiro, V. V., Casado-Coy, N., Salaní, S., De-la-Torre, G. E., Sanz-Lazaro, C., & Castro, Í. B. (2024). Microplastics in marine sponges (Porifera) along a highly urbanized estuarine gradient in Santos, Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 208, 117044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.117044
Schröder, H. C., Efremova, S. M., Margulis, B. A., Guzhova, I. V., Itskovich, V. B., & Müller, W. E. G. (2006). Stress response in Baikalian sponges exposed to pollutants. Hydrobiologia, 568(Suppl 1), 277-287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-006-0302-1
Sharma, K. K., Chowdhury, A. R., & Srivastava, S. (2020). Chemistry and applications of lac and its by-product. In Natural materials and products from insects: Chemistry and applications (pp. 21-37). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36610-0_2
Soota, T. D. (1991). Freshwater sponges of India (Occasional Paper No. 138). Zoological Survey of India. https://archive.org/details/dli.zoological.occpapers.138
Stevenson, A., Archer, S. K., Schultz, J. A., Dunham, A., Marliave, J. B., Martone, P., & Harley, C. D. G. (2020). Warming and acidification threaten glass sponge Aphrocallistes vastus pumping and reef formation. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 8176. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-65220-9
Thakur, N. L., Perović-Ottstadt, S., Batel, R., Korzhev, M., Diehl-Seifert, B., Müller, I. M., & Müller, W. E. G. (2005). Innate immune defense of the sponge Suberitesdomuncula against gram-positive bacteria: induction of lysozyme and AdaPTin. Marine Biology, 146(2), 271-282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-004-1438-z
Tsubaki, R., & Kato, M. (2014). A novel filtering mutualism between a sponge host and its endosymbiotic bivalves. PLoS One, 9(10), e108885. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0108885
Vogel, S. (1977). Current-induced flow through living sponges in nature. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 74(5), 2069-2071.https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.74.5.2069
Wagner, C., Steffen, R., Koziol, C., Batel, R., Lacorn, M., Steinhart, H., ... & Müller, W. E. G. (1998). Apoptosis in marine sponges: a biomarker for environmental stress (cadmium and bacteria). Marine Biology, 131(3), 411-421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002270050334
Weisz, J. B., Lindquist, N., & Martens, C. S. (2008). Do associated microbial abundances impact marine demosponge pumping rates and tissue densities?.Oecologia, 155(2), 367-376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-007-0910-0
Wiens, M., Korzhev, M., Perović-Ottstadt, S., Luthringer, B., Brandt, D., Klein, S., & Müller, W. E. (2007). Toll-like receptors are part of the innate immune defense system of sponges (Demospongiae: Porifera). Molecular Biology and Evolution, 24(3), 792-804. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msl208
Cummings, V. J., Beaumont, J., Mobilia, V., Bell, J. J., Tracey, D., Clark, M. R., & Barr, N. (2020). Responses of a common New Zealand coastal sponge to elevated suspended sediments: Indications of resilience. Marine Environmental Research, 155, 104886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.104886
Duckworth, A. R., & Pomponi, S. A. (2005). Relative importance of bacteria, microalgae and yeast for growth of the sponge Halichondriamelanadocia (De Laubenfels, 1936): a laboratory study. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 323(2), 151-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2005.03.007
Elliott, G. R., & Leys, S. P. (2007). Coordinated contractions effectively expel water from the aquiferous system of a freshwater sponge. Journal of Experimental Biology, 210(21), 3736-3748. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.003392
Fraissinet, S., Arduini, D., Vidal, O., Pennetta, A., De Benedetto, G. E., Malitesta, C., ... & Rossi, S. (2023). Particle uptake by filter-feeding macrofoulers from the Mar Grande of Taranto (Mediterranean Sea, Italy): potential as microplastic pollution bioremediators. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 188, 114613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114613
Hansen, I. V., Weeks, J. M., & Depledge, M. H. (1995). Accumulation of copper, zinc, cadmium and chromium by the marine sponge Halichondriapanicea Pallas and the implications for biomonitoring. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 31(1-3), 133-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-326X(94)00228-2
Hoffmann, F., Røy, H., Bayer, K., Hentschel, U., Pfannkuchen, M., Brümmer, F., & De Beer, D. (2008). Oxygen dynamics and transport in the Mediterranean sponge Aplysinaaerophoba. Marine biology, 153(6), 1257-1264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-008-0905-3
Hombing, A. B., Zamani, N. P., Ismet, M. S., Cordova, M. R., Subhan, B., &Suripatty, G. (2025). Interaction Mechanisms Between Marine Sponges (Porifera) and Microplastics: A Bioecological Overview. In BIO Web of Conferences (Vol. 184, p. 03005). EDP Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202518403005
Kornder, N. A., Esser, Y., Stoupin, D., Leys, S. P., Mueller, B., Vermeij, M. J., ... & de Goeij, J. M. (2022). Sponges sneeze mucus to shed particulate waste from their seawater inlet pores. Current Biology, 32(17), 3855-3861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.07.017
Ledda, F. D., Ramoino, P., Ravera, S., Perino, E., Bianchini, P., Diaspro, A., ... &Manconi, R. (2013). Tubulin posttranslational modifications induced by cadmium in the sponge Clathrinaclathrus. Aquatic Toxicology, 140, 98-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2013.05.013
Leys, S. P., Yahel, G., Reidenbach, M. A., Tunnicliffe, V., Shavit, U., & Reiswig, H. M. (2011). The sponge pump: The role of current induced flow in the design of the sponge body plan. PloS One, 6(12), e27787.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0027787
Manconi, R., Ruengsawang, N., Vannachak, V., Hanjavanit, C., Sangpradub, N., &Pronzato, R. (2013). Biodiversity in Southeast Asia: an overview of freshwater sponges (Porifera: Demospongiae: Spongillina). Journal of Limnology, 72(s2), 313-326. https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2013.s2.e15
Morganti, T. M., Ribes, M., Yahel, G., & Coma, R. (2019). Size is the major determinant of pumping rates in marine sponges. Frontiers in Physiology, 10, 1474. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.01474
Mukherjee, S. (2017). Studies on the toxicity of washing soda in freshwater sponge Eunapius carteri Bowerbank 1863.Shodhganga.http://hdl.handle.net/10603/211583
Mukherjee, S., Bhunia, A. S., Bhunia, N. S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2016a). Immunomodulatory effects of temperature and pH of water in an Indian freshwater sponge. Journal of Thermal Biology, 59, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2016.04.005
Mukherjee, S., Gautam, A., Pal, K., Karmakar, P., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2021). Copper oxide nanoparticle and copper sulfate induced impairment of innate immune parameters in a common Indian sponge. Journal of Hazardous Materials Letters, 2, 100036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazl.2021.100036
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2015a). Phagocytic efficiency and cytotoxic responses of Indian freshwater sponge (Eunapius carteri) cells isolated by density gradient centrifugation and flow cytometry: A morphofunctional analysis. Zoology, 118(1), 8-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zool.2014.07.002
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2015b). Immunotoxicity of washing soda in a freshwater sponge of India. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 113, 112-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.11.035
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2016b). A report of hailstorm damage to two species of freshwater sponge (Demospongiae: Haplosclerida: Spongillidae) populations of West Bengal, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 8(4): 8719–8727. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.1739.8.4.8719-8727
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2016c). Shift in aggregation, ROS generation, antioxidative defense, lysozyme and acetylcholinesterase activities in the cells of an Indian freshwater sponge exposed to washing soda (sodium carbonate). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology, 187, 19-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpc.2016.05.001
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., & Ray, S. (2018). Washing soda induced alteration of the differential cell count, nonself surface adhesion efficacy and nuclear morphology of the polyphenotypic cells of a freshwater sponge of India. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 11(2), 155-168. https://doi.org/10.2478/intox-2018-0012
Mukherjee, S., Ray, M., Dutta, M. K., Acharya, A., Mukhopadhyay, S. K., & Ray, S. (2015c). Morphological alteration, lysosomal membrane fragility and apoptosis of the cells of Indian freshwater sponge exposed to washing soda (sodium carbonate). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 122, 331-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.08.011
Müller, W. E., Batel, R., Lacorn, M., Steinhart, H., Simat, T., Lauenroth, S., ... & Schröder, H. C. (1998). Accumulation of cadmium and zinc in the marine sponge Suberitesdomuncula and its potential consequences on single-strand breaks and on expression of heat-shock protein: A natural field study. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 167, 127-135. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps167127
Negri, A., Burns, K., Boyle, S., Brinkman, D., & Webster, N. (2006). Contamination in sediments, bivalves and sponges of McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Environmental Pollution, 143(3), 456-467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2005.12.005
Ogawa, T., Koyama, S., Omori, T., Kikuchi, K., de Maleprade, H., Goldstein, R. E., & Ishikawa, T. (2025). The architecture of sponge choanocyte chambers is well adapted to mechanical pumping functions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(12), e2421296122. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2421296122
Patterson, M. R., Chernykh, V. I., Fialkov, V. A., & Savarese, M. (1997). Trophic effects of sponge feeding within Lake Baikal's littoral zone. 1. Insitu pumping rates. Limnology and Oceanography, 42(1), 171-178. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1997.42.1.0171
Pfannkuchen, M., Fritz, G. B., Schlesinger, S., Bayer, K., &Brümmer, F. (2009). In situ pumping activity of the sponge Aplysinaaerophoba, Nardo 1886. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 369(1), 65-71.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2008.10.027
Ribeiro, V. V., Casado-Coy, N., Salaní, S., De-la-Torre, G. E., Sanz-Lazaro, C., & Castro, Í. B. (2024). Microplastics in marine sponges (Porifera) along a highly urbanized estuarine gradient in Santos, Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 208, 117044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.117044
Schröder, H. C., Efremova, S. M., Margulis, B. A., Guzhova, I. V., Itskovich, V. B., & Müller, W. E. G. (2006). Stress response in Baikalian sponges exposed to pollutants. Hydrobiologia, 568(Suppl 1), 277-287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-006-0302-1
Sharma, K. K., Chowdhury, A. R., & Srivastava, S. (2020). Chemistry and applications of lac and its by-product. In Natural materials and products from insects: Chemistry and applications (pp. 21-37). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36610-0_2
Soota, T. D. (1991). Freshwater sponges of India (Occasional Paper No. 138). Zoological Survey of India. https://archive.org/details/dli.zoological.occpapers.138
Stevenson, A., Archer, S. K., Schultz, J. A., Dunham, A., Marliave, J. B., Martone, P., & Harley, C. D. G. (2020). Warming and acidification threaten glass sponge Aphrocallistes vastus pumping and reef formation. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 8176. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-65220-9
Thakur, N. L., Perović-Ottstadt, S., Batel, R., Korzhev, M., Diehl-Seifert, B., Müller, I. M., & Müller, W. E. G. (2005). Innate immune defense of the sponge Suberitesdomuncula against gram-positive bacteria: induction of lysozyme and AdaPTin. Marine Biology, 146(2), 271-282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-004-1438-z
Tsubaki, R., & Kato, M. (2014). A novel filtering mutualism between a sponge host and its endosymbiotic bivalves. PLoS One, 9(10), e108885. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0108885
Vogel, S. (1977). Current-induced flow through living sponges in nature. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 74(5), 2069-2071.https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.74.5.2069
Wagner, C., Steffen, R., Koziol, C., Batel, R., Lacorn, M., Steinhart, H., ... & Müller, W. E. G. (1998). Apoptosis in marine sponges: a biomarker for environmental stress (cadmium and bacteria). Marine Biology, 131(3), 411-421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002270050334
Weisz, J. B., Lindquist, N., & Martens, C. S. (2008). Do associated microbial abundances impact marine demosponge pumping rates and tissue densities?.Oecologia, 155(2), 367-376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-007-0910-0
Wiens, M., Korzhev, M., Perović-Ottstadt, S., Luthringer, B., Brandt, D., Klein, S., & Müller, W. E. (2007). Toll-like receptors are part of the innate immune defense system of sponges (Demospongiae: Porifera). Molecular Biology and Evolution, 24(3), 792-804. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msl208
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Mukherjee, S. and Ray, S. (2026) “The Art of Dye Expulsion in an Indian Freshwater Sponge”, International Journal of Advancement in Life Sciences Research, 9(4), pp. 217-229. doi: https://doi.org/10.31632/ijalsr.2026.v09i04.014.
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Research Articles
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