Biofabrication of Ruthenium Oxide Nanoparticles Using Leaf Extracts of Causonis trifolia (L.) and Evaluation of their Biocompatibility, Antioxidant, and Anti-Skin Cancer Potentials
Abstract
Green synthesis of ruthenium nanoparticles (RuNPs) is gaining significant attention due to its environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and readily accessible nature. However, few studies have reported on green synthesis and characterization of RuNPs compared to other metal NPs. This study describes how to make RuNPs using water extracts from Causonis trifolia (L.) leaves as a natural reducing agent. The characterization of RuNPs proved that the particles exhibit a prominent characteristic absorption peak at 491 nm and show functional groups corresponding to various bioactive phytochemical constituents, such as flavonoids, alkaloids, phenolics, and terpenoids that are involved in the capping of NPs. The particles had a granular appearance with an irregular surface, ranging in size from 37 to 63 nm and an average size of 48 nm. These particles were confirmed to be tetragonal structures with 73 % elemental Ru and possess a high degree of purity. The MTT assay assessed the cytotoxicity of RuNPs on A-431 skin cancer cell lines and Vero non-cancerous cells. The results indicated that the NPs exhibit significantly high activity against cancer cells and less activity against non-cancer cells. The NPs exhibit the IC50 concentration of 267.10 µg/mL, whereas standard doxorubicin shows 130.34 µg/mL. These NPs effectively reduce DPPH radicals with an IC50 concentration of 115.58±0.232 µg/mL, demonstrating their ability to act as antioxidants. Hence, it can be concluded that the RuNPs synthesized are nontoxic, safe for further exploration in biomedical applications, and showcased as eco-friendly and effective agents in cancer treatment and antioxidant therapy.
Keywords:
Anti-Skin Cancer Activity, A-431 Cell Lines, Causonis trifolia (L.), Green Synthesis, Ruthenium Nanoparticles
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References
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Mahmoud, A. E. D. (2020). Eco-friendly reduction of graphene oxide via agricultural byproducts or aquatic macrophytes. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2020.123336
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Prasanna K., Sunil, K., & Arun Kumar, B. (2018). Determination of DPPH Free Radical Scavenging Activity by RP-HPLC, Rapid Sensitive Method for the Screening of Berry Fruit Juice Freeze Dried Extract. Natural Products Chemistry & Research, 6(5), 1-7.https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-6836.1000341
Rahman, G., Yeon Lim, J., Jung, K. D., & Joo, O. S. (2011). Electrodeposited Ru nanoparticles for electrochemical reduction of NAD+ to NADH. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 6(7), 2789-2797. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1452-3981(23)18217-4
Sæbø, I. P., Bjørås, M., Franzyk, H., Helgesen, E., & Booth, J. A. (2023). Optimization of the Hemolysis Assay for the Assessment of Cytotoxicity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(3), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24032914
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Su, F., Lv, L., Lee, F. Y., Liu, T., Cooper, A. I., & Zhao, X. S. (2007). Thermally reduced ruthenium nanoparticles as a highly active heterogeneous catalyst for hydrogenation of monoaromatics. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 129(46), 14213-14223. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja072697v
Usha Rani, N., Peddi, P., Lakshmi Tulasi, S., & Prasadarao, P. T. S. R. K. (2023). Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using leaf extract of Causonis trifolia (L.) and its applications on germination and growth enhancement of mustard seeds. Asian Journal of Chemistry, 35(4), 923-928. https://doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2023.26938
Becker, J., Manske, C., & Randl, S. (2022). Green chemistry and sustainability metrics in the pharmaceutical manufacturing sector. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 536(Supplement 1), S437-S440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2011.12.148
El-Amier, Y. A., Abduljabbar, B. T., El-Zayat, M. M., Sarker, T. C., & Abd-ElGawad, A. M. (2024). Biosynthesis of metal/metal oxide nanoparticles via Deverra tortuosa: Characterization, GC/MS profiles, and biological potential. Scientific Reports, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-74471-9
El-Borady, O. M., Fawzy, M., & Hosny, M. (2023). Antioxidant, anticancer and enhanced photocatalytic potentials of gold nanoparticles biosynthesized by common reed leaf extract. Applied Nanoscience, 13(5), 3149-3160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-021-01776-w
Gopinath, K., Karthika, V., Gowri, S., Senthilkumar, V., Kumaresan, S., & Arumugam, A. (2014). Antibacterial activity of ruthenium nanoparticles synthesized using Gloriosa superba L. leaf extract. Journal of Nanostructure in Chemistry, 4, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40097-014-0083-4
Gupta, P. K., Ranganath, K. V., Dubey, N. K., & Mishra, L. (2019). Green synthesis, characterization and biological activity of synthesized ruthenium nanoparticles using fishtail fern, sago palm, rosy periwinkle and holy basil. Current Science, 117(8), 1308-1317. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v117/i8/1308-1317
Gupta, S., Giordano, C., Gradzielski, M., & Mehta, S. K. (2013). Microwave-assisted synthesis of small Ru nanoparticles and their role in degradation of congo red. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 411, 173-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2013.08.030
Hazra, S., Ray, A. S., Das, S., Das Gupta, A., & Rahaman, C. H. (2023). Phytochemical profiling, biological activities, and in silico molecular docking studies of Causonis trifolia (L.) Mabb. & J. Wen Shoot. Plants, 12(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12071495
Iqbal, J., Abbasi, B. A., Yaseen, T., Zahra, S. A., Shahbaz, A., Shah, S. A., ... & Ahmad, P. (2021). Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Elaeagnus angustifolia L. leaf extracts and their multiple in vitro biological applications. Scientific Reports, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-99839-z
Ismail, E., Khamlich, S., Dhlamini, M., & Maaza, M. (2016). Green biosynthesis of ruthenium oxide nanoparticles on nickel foam as electrode material for supercapacitor applications. RSC Advances, 6(90), 86843-86850. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6RA17996G
Kang, J., Zhang, S., Zhang, Q., & Wang, Y. (2009). Ruthenium nanoparticles supported on carbon nanotubes as efficient catalysts for selective conversion of synthesis gas to diesel fuel. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 48(14), 2565-2568. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200805715
Kumar, D., Kumar, S., Gupta, J., Arya, R., & Gupta, A. (2011). A review on chemical and biological properties of Cayratia trifolia Linn. (Vitaceae). Pharmacognosy Reviews, 5(10), https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.91117
Kumar, P. S. S., Manivel, A., Anandan, S., Zhou, M., Grieser, F., & Ashokkumar, M. (2010). Sonochemical synthesis and characterization of gold–ruthenium bimetallic nanoparticles. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 356(1-3), 140-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2010.01.004
Kusada, K., Kobayashi, H., Yamamoto, T., Matsumura, S., Sumi, N., Sato, K., ... & Kitagawa, H. (2013). Discovery of face-centered-cubic ruthenium nanoparticles: facile size-controlled synthesis using the chemical reduction method. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 135(15), 5493-5496. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja311261s
Lefojane, R. P., Sone, B. T., Matinise, N., Saleh, K., Direko, P., Mfengwana, P., ... & Sekhoacha, M. P. (2021). CdO/CdCO3 nanocomposite physical properties and cytotoxicity against selected breast cancer cell lines. Scientific Reports, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78720-5
Liu, H., Song, C., Zhang, L., Zhang, J., Wang, H., & Wilkinson, D. P. (2006). A review of anode catalysis in the direct methanol fuel cell. Journal of Power Sources, 155(2), 95-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.01.030
Mahmoud, A. E. D. (2020). Eco-friendly reduction of graphene oxide via agricultural byproducts or aquatic macrophytes. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2020.123336
Mfengwana, P. M. A. H., & Sone, B. T. (2023). Green synthesis and characterization of ruthenium oxide nanoparticles using Gunnera perpensa for potential anticancer activity against MCF7 cancer cells. Scientific Reports, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-50005-7
Naiel, B., Fawzy, M., Halmy, M. W. A., & Mahmoud, A. E. D. (2022). Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Sea Lavender (Limonium pruinosum L. Chaz.) extract: characterization, evaluation of anti-skin cancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant potentials. Scientific Reports, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-24805-2
Nisha, B., Vidyalakshmi, Y., & Razack, S. A. (2020). Enhanced formation of ruthenium oxide nanoparticles through green synthesis for highly efficient supercapacitor applications. Advanced Powder Technology, 31(3), 1001-1006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2019.12.026
Perkas, N., Minh, D. P., Gallezot, P., Gedanken, A., & Besson, M. (2005). Platinum and ruthenium catalysts on mesoporous titanium and zirconium oxides for the catalytic wet air oxidation of model compounds. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 59(1-2), 121-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2005.01.009
Prasanna K., Sunil, K., & Arun Kumar, B. (2018). Determination of DPPH Free Radical Scavenging Activity by RP-HPLC, Rapid Sensitive Method for the Screening of Berry Fruit Juice Freeze Dried Extract. Natural Products Chemistry & Research, 6(5), 1-7.https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-6836.1000341
Rahman, G., Yeon Lim, J., Jung, K. D., & Joo, O. S. (2011). Electrodeposited Ru nanoparticles for electrochemical reduction of NAD+ to NADH. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 6(7), 2789-2797. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1452-3981(23)18217-4
Sæbø, I. P., Bjørås, M., Franzyk, H., Helgesen, E., & Booth, J. A. (2023). Optimization of the Hemolysis Assay for the Assessment of Cytotoxicity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(3), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24032914
Selvaraj, K., Sivakumar, G., Pillai, A. A., Veeraraghavan, V. P., Bolla, S. R., Veeraraghavan, G. R., ... & PB, J. (2019). Phytochemical screening, HPTLC fingerprinting and Invitro antioxidant activity of root extract of Asparagus racemosus. Pharmacognosy Journal, 11(4). 818-823. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2019.11.131
Su, F., Lv, L., Lee, F. Y., Liu, T., Cooper, A. I., & Zhao, X. S. (2007). Thermally reduced ruthenium nanoparticles as a highly active heterogeneous catalyst for hydrogenation of monoaromatics. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 129(46), 14213-14223. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja072697v
Usha Rani, N., Peddi, P., Lakshmi Tulasi, S., & Prasadarao, P. T. S. R. K. (2023). Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using leaf extract of Causonis trifolia (L.) and its applications on germination and growth enhancement of mustard seeds. Asian Journal of Chemistry, 35(4), 923-928. https://doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2023.26938
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Rao, P. ., Ramanjaneyulu, K., & Rani, N. (2025). Biofabrication of Ruthenium Oxide Nanoparticles Using Leaf Extracts of Causonis trifolia (L.) and Evaluation of their Biocompatibility, Antioxidant, and Anti-Skin Cancer Potentials. International Journal of Advancement in Life Sciences Research, 8(2), 13-26. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31632/ijalsr.2025.v08i02.002
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